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Flowing in every day, these data are added to the <a href="http://web.archive.org/">Wayback Machine</a> after an embargo period. + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> + <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> + <div> + <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> + <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web-static.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> + </div> + </div> + </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com:80/blog/cucu-part2.html</div> +<script type="text/javascript">//<![CDATA[ +__wm.bt(725,27,25,2,"web","http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part2.html","20160508094511",1996,"https://web-static.archive.org/_static/",["https://web-static.archive.org/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=S1zqJCYt","https://web-static.archive.org/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); + __wm.rw(1); +//]]></script> +<!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> + + <header> + <nav> + <a class="logo" href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/">Z</a> + </nav> + <div class="empty"></div> + <nav> + <section> + <a href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/about.html">about</a> + <a href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/blog.html">posts</a> + </section> + <section> + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://twitter.com/zsergo">@me</a> + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://plus.google.com/u/0/+SergeZaitsev">+me</a> + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://github.com/zserge"></>me</a> + </section> + </nav> + </header> + <h1>cucu: a compiler u can understand (part 2)</h1> + +<p>So far, we have defined language grammar and have written a lexer. In this part +we will write a parser for our language. Before we start, we need some helper +functions:</p> + +<pre><code>int peek(char *s) { + return (strcmp(tok, s) == 0); +} + +int accept(char *s) { + if (peek(s)) { + readtok(); + return 1; + } + return 0; +} + +int expect(char *s) { + if (accept(s) == 0) { + error("Error: expected '%s'\n", s); + } +} +</code></pre> + +<p><code>peek()</code> returns non-zero value if the next token is equal to the given string. +<code>accept()</code> reads the next token, if it’s equal to the given string, otherwise it + returns 0. And <code>expect()</code> helps us to check language syntax.</p> + +<h2>the harder part</h2> + +<p>As you can see from the language grammar, statements and various expression +types are strongly interconnected. It means we have to write all parser +functions at once, keeping in mind the recursion. Let’s go again from top +to bottom. Here’s our top-level compiler() functions:</p> + +<pre><code>static int typename(); +static void statement(); + +static void compile() { + while (tok[0] != 0) { /* until EOF */ + if (typename() == 0) { + error("Error: type name expected\n"); + } + DEBUG("identifier: %s\n", tok); + readtok(); + if (accept(";")) { + DEBUG("variable definition\n"); + continue; + } + expect("("); + int argc = 0; + for (;;) { + argc++; + typename(); + DEBUG("function argument: %s\n", tok); + readtok(); + if (peek(")")) { + break; + } + expect(","); + } + expect(")"); + if (accept(";") == 0) { + DEBUG("function body\n"); + statement(); + } + } +} +</code></pre> + +<p>It reads type name, then an identifier. If it’s followed by a semicolon - +it’s a variable declaration. If it’s followed by a paren - it’s a function. +Function scans function arguments one by one, and if function is not +followed by a semicolon - it’s a definition (function with a body), otherwise - +it’s just a declaration (just function name and prototype).</p> + +<p>Here, <code>typename()</code> is function that just skips the valid type name. We accept +only <code>int</code> and <code>char</code> and various pointers to them (<code>char *</code>):</p> + +<pre><code>static int typename() { + if (peek("int") || peek("char")) { + readtok(); + while (accept("*")); + return 1; + } + return 0; +} +</code></pre> + +<p>The most interesting part is the <code>statement()</code> function. It parses a single +statement, which can be a block, a local variable definition/declaration, +a <code>return</code> statement etc. Here how it should look like:</p> + +<pre><code>static void statement() { + if (accept("{")) { + while (accept("}") == 0) { + statement(); + } + } else if (typename()) { + DEBUG("local variable: %s\n", tok); + readtok(); + if (accept("=")) { + expr(); + DEBUG(" :=\n"); + } + expect(";"); + } else if (accept("if")) { + /* TODO */ + } else if (accept("while")) { + /* TODO */ + } else if (accept("return")) { + if (peek(";") == 0) { + expr(); + } + expect(";"); + DEBUG("RET\n"); + } else { + expr(); + expect(";"); + } +} +</code></pre> + +<p>So, if it’s a block <code>{ .. }</code> - just read statements until end of block is met. +If it starts with a type name - it’s a local variable. Conditional statements +(“if/then/else”) and loops are just stubs for now. Think of how you would +implement them according to the grammar we use.</p> + +<p>Anyway, most of the statement contain expressions inside. So, we need to make a +function that parses an expression. Expression parser is a recursive descent +parser, so it’s a number of functions that call each other recursively until +primary expression is found. Primary expression as we can see from the grammar +is a number (constant) or an identifier (variable or function).</p> + +<pre><code>static void prim_expr() { + if (isdigit(tok[0])) { + DEBUG(" const-%s ", tok); + } else if (isalpha(tok[0])) { + DEBUG(" var-%s ", tok); + } else if (accept("(")) { + expr(); + expect(")"); + } else { + error("Unexpected primary expression: %s\n", tok); + } + readtok(); +} + +static void postfix_expr() { + prim_expr(); + if (accept("[")) { + expr(); + expect("]"); + DEBUG(" [] "); + } else if (accept("(")) { + if (accept(")") == 0) { + expr(); + DEBUG(" FUNC-ARG\n"); + while (accept(",")) { + expr(); + DEBUG(" FUNC-ARG\n"); + } + expect(")"); + } + DEBUG(" FUNC-CALL\n"); + } +} + +static void add_expr() { + postfix_expr(); + while (peek("+") || peek("-")) { + if (accept("+")) { + postfix_expr(); + DEBUG(" + "); + } else if (accept("-")) { + postfix_expr(); + DEBUG(" - "); + } + } +} + +static void shift_expr() { + add_expr(); + while (peek("<<") || peek(">>")) { + if (accept("<<")) { + add_expr(); + DEBUG(" << "); + } else if (accept(">>")) { + add_expr(); + DEBUG(" >> "); + } + } +} + +static void rel_expr() { + shift_expr(); + while (peek("<")) { + if (accept("<")) { + shift_expr(); + DEBUG(" < "); + } + } +} + +static void eq_expr() { + rel_expr(); + while (peek("==") || peek("!=")) { + if (accept("==")) { + rel_expr(); + DEBUG(" == "); + } else if (accept("!=")) { + rel_expr(); + DEBUG("!="); + } + } +} + +static void bitwise_expr() { + eq_expr(); + while (peek("|") || peek("&")) { + if (accept("|")) { + eq_expr(); + DEBUG(" OR "); + } else if (accept("&")) { + eq_expr(); + DEBUG(" AND "); + } + } +} + +static void expr() { + bitwise_expr(); + if (accept("=")) { + expr(); + DEBUG(" := "); + } +} +</code></pre> + +<p>It’s a big piece of code, but don’t be afraid - it’s really simple. +Every function that parses expression type first tries to call a +more prioritized expression parser. Then, if an expected operator is found - +it calls more prioritized expression parser again. Now it has parsed both +parts of a binary expression (like x+y, or x&y, or x==y), so it can perform +an operation and return. Some expression can be “chained” (like a+b+c+d), so +we parse them with loops.</p> + +<p>We put debug output after every expression parser function. This will give us +an interesting result. For example, if we parse this piece of code:</p> + +<pre><code>int main(int argc, char **argv) { + int i = 2 + 3; + char *s; + func(i+2, i == 2 + 2, s[i+2]); + return i & 34 + 2; +} +</code></pre> + +<p>we will get this ouput:</p> + +<pre><code>identifier: main +function argument: argc +function argument: argv +function body +local variable: i + const-2 const-3 + := +local variable: s + var-func var-i const-2 + FUNC-ARG + var-i const-2 const-2 + == FUNC-ARG + var-s var-i const-2 + [] FUNC-ARG + FUNC-CALL + var-i const-34 const-2 + AND RET +</code></pre> + +<p>All our expressions are written in a postfix form (instead of <code>2+3</code> it’s <code>2 3 ++</code>). This is a natural form for stack machines, when operands are placed on +the stack, then a function called pops up the operands, processes them and puts +the result back on the stack.</p> + +<p>Though it might not be an optimal architecture for most modern CPUs, which are +register-based, it’s still very simple and fits our compiler needs.</p> + +<h2>symbols</h2> + +<p>Ok, we are good. We’ve got a lexer and a parser in less than 300 lines of code. +What we need to do is to add some functions to work with the symbols (like +variable names, or functions). A compiler should have a table of symbols to +quickly find their addresses, so when you write “i = 0” - it means put zero +into the location at address 0x1234 in RAM (if symbol “i” has address 0x1234 in +memory). +Also, when you call “func()” it means - jump to address 0x5678 (if symbol “func” +has value of 0x5678).</p> + +<p>We use the following structure for symbols:</p> + +<pre><code>struct sym { + char type; + int addr; + char name[]; +}; +</code></pre> + +<p>Here <code>type</code> has special meaning. We use a single-letter codes to detect symbol +type:</p> + +<ul> +<li><code>L</code> - is a local variable. <code>addr</code> stores variable location on the stack</li> +<li><code>A</code> - function argument. <code>addr</code> also stores the location on the stack</li> +<li><code>U</code> - undefined global variable. <code>addr</code> stores absolute address in RAM.</li> +<li><code>D</code> - defined global variable. Same as above.</li> +</ul> + +<p>So far, I’ve added two functions: <code>sym_find(char *s)</code> to find symbol by its +name, and <code>sym_declare()</code> to add a new symbol.</p> + +<p>Now we’re are ready to develop <a href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part3.html">backend architecture →</a></p> + +<p><em>Check <a href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part1.html">part 1</a> if you missed something</em></p> + + <p>Posted on 2012-10-24</p> + <section class="social"> + <section> + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/http://www.facebook.com/share.php?u=http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part2.html&title=cucu:%20a%20compiler%20you%20can%20understand%20%282/3%29" style="background-color: #3b5997">like</a> + + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/http://twitter.com/intent/tweet?status=cucu:%20a%20compiler%20you%20can%20understand%20%282/3%29+http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part2.html%20via%20@zsergo" style="background-color: #41b7d8">tweet</a> + + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://plus.google.com/share?url=http://zserge.com/blog/cucu-part2.html" style="background-color: #d64937">+1</a> + </section> + <section> + <a href="/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/rss.xml" style="background-color: #f26522">rss</a> + + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://twitter.com/zsergo" style="background-color: #41b7d8">@me</a> + + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://plus.google.com/u/0/+SergeZaitsev" style="background-color: #d64937">+me</a> + + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/https://github.com/zserge" style="background-color: #333333"></>me</a> + </section> + </section> + <section><div id="disqus_thread"></div><script type="text/javascript"> +var disqus_shortname='zserge'; + (function() { + var dsq = document.createElement('script'); + dsq.type = 'text/javascript'; + dsq.async = true; + dsq.src = 'http://' + disqus_shortname + '.disqus.com/embed.js'; + (document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0] || document.getElementsByTagName('body')[0]).appendChild(dsq); + })(); + </script> +<noscript> +</noscript> + +</section> + <footer> + <p> + ©2012–2015 · + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/http://zserge.com/">Serge Zaitsev</a> + · + <a href="http://web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/mailto:zaitsev.serge@gmail.com">zaitsev.serge@gmail.com</a> + </p> + </footer> + <script> + (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ + (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), + m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) + })(window,document,'script','//web.archive.org/web/20160508094511/http://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); + ga('create', 'UA-33644825-1', 'zserge.com'); + ga('send', 'pageview'); +</script> + + + </body> +</html> +<!-- + FILE ARCHIVED ON 09:45:11 May 08, 2016 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE + INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 17:21:31 Jan 12, 2024. + JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. + + ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. + SECTION 108(a)(3)). +--> +<!-- +playback timings (ms): + captures_list: 1644.92 (11) + exclusion.robots: 0.202 + exclusion.robots.policy: 0.19 + cdx.remote: 0.077 + esindex: 0.011 + LoadShardBlock: 231.62 (3) + PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 237.607 (4) + load_resource: 369.139 + PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 308.525 +-->
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